Games & Virtual Worlds Series
The Game State, Information & Movement
Understanding Games: How Video Games & Board Games Work
By controlling the information that is made available to players at different points in the game, developers may create a dynamic and engaging experience that keeps players challenged and invested in the game as a whole by fostering strategic decision-making, surprise, and engagement.
A game state refers to the current configuration of a game at a given point in time. It includes all of the information necessary to completely specify the game, such as the positions of all of the game pieces, the current score, the players’ turns, and any other relevant variables. The game state can change over time as the game progresses and actions are taken.
In some games, the game state may also include information about past events and actions that have taken place, as this can affect the current state of the game and the available options for future moves. Game state considerations are ever-present in all game design and in the development of artificial intelligence algorithms in video games.
In a board game like chess, the game state at any given point includes the positions of all of the pieces on the board, the players’ turns, and any special conditions or rules that may be in effect (such as en passant captures or castling).
In a video game like Super Mario Bros, the game state might include the position of the player character on the screen, the number of lives remaining, the current score, the time remaining, and the positions and states of any enemies or other interactive objects in the game world.
In a collectible card game like Magic: The Gathering, the game state includes the cards in each player’s deck and hand, the cards that have been played or discarded, and any ongoing effects or special conditions that have been imposed on the game.
In each of these examples, the game state is constantly changing as the game progresses and actions are taken.
Information
It is important for the game state to be conveyed to players in a clear and concise manner so that they can make informed decisions and understand the current state of the game. This is especially important in games with complex rules or many different game pieces, as players need to be able to easily understand the current state in order to strategize and plan their next moves.
In board games and card games, the game state is usually conveyed through the physical arrangement of the game pieces or cards on the board or table. In video games, the game state is often conveyed through on-screen graphics and user interfaces that display relevant information to the player.
In all cases, it is important for the game design to strike a balance between providing players with enough information to make informed decisions, while still maintaining an element of uncertainty and surprise. If the game state is too predictable or transparent, it can become stale and uninteresting for players. On the other hand, if the game state is too opaque or difficult to understand, players may become frustrated or disengaged.
Types of Information
These ideas on information types described below come from a mix of game design, general game theory and economics, since these ideas are multidisciplinary and arise similarly in different contexts. At the bottom of this page I include some sources of these ideas for reference, a bit more than usual because of the interdisciplinary uses of these ideas.
We can distinguish between the QUALITY of a game’s information (perfect vs imperfect) and the COMPLETENESS of the game’s information, as summarized in the graphic below:
Perfect information refers to a situation where each player, when making any decision, is perfectly informed of all the events that have previously occurred, including the “initialization event” of the game. This means that all players are aware of all the actions that have taken place up to the current point in the game. Chess is a classic example of a game with perfect information. In chess, both players can see the entire board and the possible moves at each stage. Other games with perfect information include tic-tac-toe, Reversi, checkers, and Go.
When you hear ‘perfect’ think ‘history’ because the history has to be known. In a game like Battleship, the initial placement of the opponents ships are not known, so the imperfection in the information arises from not knowing the initialization states as players cannot know the complete history (in a sense, they discover this history as the game unfolds!).
On the other hand, complete information implies common knowledge of each player’s utility functions, payoffs, and strategies. In other words, each player is aware of the strategies and payoffs available to the other players. However, a game with perfect information may or may not have complete information. For instance, games where some aspect of play is hidden from opponents — such as the cards in poker and bridge — are examples of games with incomplete information.
Games with complete information often involve elements of bluffing, psychology, and reacting to the changing dynamics of the game state. On the other hand, games with perfect information tend to be more focused on pure strategy and logical reasoning, as players can fully analyze the consequences of their decisions.
Perfect and complete information are thus two different concepts in game theory and game design, though at first they may seem to be highly similar. Perfect information refers to the knowledge of all past events in a game, while complete information refers to the knowledge of all players’ strategies and payoffs. The distinction between these two concepts is important in game design, as it can significantly affect the strategies that players use and the overall dynamics of the game.
Imperfect information refers to situations where players are unaware of the actions chosen by other players. However, they are aware of who the other players are, their possible strategies or actions, and the preferences or payoffs of these other players. In other words, the information about the other players in imperfect information games is complete, but the players do not have real-time knowledge of the actions taken by others. An example of a game with imperfect information is poker, where each player’s cards are hidden from other players, creating an information asymmetry.
On the other hand, incomplete information games are those where players may or may not know some information about the other players, such as their “type”, their strategies, payoffs, or their preferences. In these games, players do not have common knowledge of the game being played. An example of a game with incomplete information is the Prisoner’s Dilemma Game, where Player 1 does not know Player 2’s type, which could be either selfish or nice. An analogy with classic RPGs like Dungeon and Dragons might be not knowing the alignment (moral characteristics) of another player in the party. Not knowing their type means not understanding what motivates them and thus what their payoffs and strategies might be.
Transparency of Information
The transparency of information in a game can be voluntary or involuntary.
In a game with voluntary transparency, players have the choice of whether or not to reveal certain information to other players. This can include their actions, their payoffs, or the outcomes of certain events in the game. An example of a game with voluntary transparency is poker, where players can choose to show their cards to other players or keep them hidden.
In a game with involuntary transparency, players do not have the choice of whether to reveal certain information. This information is automatically revealed to all players. An example of a game with involuntary transparency is chess, where all of the pieces and their movements are visible to both players at all times.
Voluntary transparency allows players to use information as a strategic tool, as they can choose to reveal or withhold information to influence the decisions of other players. Involuntary transparency removes this element of strategy, as all players have access to the same information due to the simultaneous nature of their opponents’ actions.
Movement: Discrete and Continuous Spaces
In a game with a discrete space, the game board or playing field is divided into distinct, separate cells or locations. Movement between these cells is typically limited to certain predefined paths or rules. An example of a game with a discrete space is chess, where the board is divided into 64 squares and pieces can only move to certain squares based on their type and rules of movement.
In a game with a continuous space, the game board or playing field is not divided into distinct cells or locations. Movement is typically not limited to predefined paths and can be continuous and unrestricted within the boundaries of the playing field. An example of a game with a continuous space is billiards, where the ball can move continuously around the table and obstacles.
Both discrete and continuous spaces can be used in a wide variety of games and can offer different challenges and strategic considerations for players.
While the spatial characteristics of a game are generally analyzable as either continuous or discrete, there can be some ambiguities or momentary switches between the two based on the stage of the game. The same region of space may be considered continuous in some game mechanics and discrete in others. When serving a tennis ball, for instance, the player must stand behind the fault line and send the ball across the court into the service box directly across from where they started, but the rules around serving space only apply during the serve.
In deciding whether or not a serve was lawful, the fault line, the net, and the service box are each considered to be separate and distinct areas. Anywhere inside the box, with the server standing behind the line, and without touching the net is good enough. At the same time, the area of the game is continuous for the player who is receiving the ball; they must make contact with the ball with their racket, regardless of where it’s swung within the service box.
Continuous space in computer games is analogous to real world space. It’s worth noting that though the player perceives continuity, there is of course an underlying discreteness in the code, algorithmic calculations, pixels and so on — everything is discrete in a strictly technical way with digital games — but this technical discreteness is so minimal that the total experiential effect is basically continuous.
All game engines are based on general 3D modeling technologies that use discrete spatial grids of Cartesian XYZ coordinates that are very much visually present during the design of them, but are typically hidden from players during gameplay.
Adjacency
Spatial adjacency games are a type of game in which the payoffs of players are influenced by their relative positions on a game board or playing field. In these games, the location of a player’s game piece can directly affect the payoffs of that player and other players.
An example of a spatial adjacency game is the board game Go. In Go, players place their pieces on a grid-like board and try to surround and capture the pieces of their opponent. The payoffs of the players are determined by the number of pieces they have on the board and the amount of territory they control.
Other examples of spatial adjacency games include the board game Risk, where players try to capture territory on a map of the world, and the video game Starcraft, where players build and defend bases on a map while also trying to destroy the bases of their opponents.
Spatial adjacency games can involve both discrete and continuous spaces, and often involve elements of hidden information and voluntary transparency as players try to anticipate and respond to the movements of their opponents.
Nodes & Irregular Areas
Nodal mechanics are game mechanics that involve the interaction of game pieces or players at specific points or nodes on a game board or playing field where the board is a network of intersecting geometric lines. These mechanics often involve players trying to capture or control specific nodes or locations in order to gain an advantage in the game. The pieces are located at nodes (points of intersecting lines) rather than in the middle of geometrically defined areas.
Area mechanics are game mechanics that involve the control or influence of entire areas or regions on a game board or playing field. These mechanics often involve players trying to gain control of large areas or spread their influence over a wide area in order to gain an advantage in the game.
Both nodal and area mechanics can be used in a wide variety of games and can offer different challenges and strategic considerations for players.
Irregular areas in games are areas that have unique properties or rules that differ from the rest of the game board or playing field. These areas can include map boundaries, special locations, or other areas with unique characteristics.
The use of irregular areas in games can add an element of variety and strategic depth to the gameplay. For example, map boundaries can create obstacles or barriers that players must navigate around or through in order to achieve their objectives. Special locations can provide players with special abilities or benefits, such as healing or resource gathering, that can give them an advantage in the game.
An example of a game that uses irregular areas is the video game Starcraft. In Starcraft, the game map has a number of irregular areas, including the map edges, which are surrounded by impassable terrain, and resource-rich expansion locations, which can provide players with valuable resources if they are able to control them. The use of these irregular areas can influence the strategies and tactics of players as they try to gain an advantage in the game.
Hexes vs Grids
Grid spaces are game board spaces that are arranged in a grid pattern, with each space being a square or rectangle. Grid spaces are commonly used in board games, and can offer a simple and intuitive way for players to navigate the game board and understand the rules of movement and interaction.
Hexagonal spaces are game board spaces that are arranged in a hexagonal pattern, with each space being a hexagon. Hexagonal spaces are also commonly used in board games, and can offer a more complex and varied way for players to navigate the game board. The use of hexagonal spaces can allow for more varied and interesting movement patterns and can also help to prevent players from becoming “stuck” in certain areas of the game board.
Both grid and hexagonal spaces can be used in a wide variety of games and can offer different challenges and strategic considerations for players. The choice of which type of space to use can depend on the specific goals and design of the game.
The difference between having four neighbors in a grid-based game board and having six neighbors in a hex-based game board can affect gameplay in several ways.
In a grid-based game board with four neighbors, a game piece is typically surrounded by four other game pieces: one above, one below, one to the left, and one to the right. This can make it easier for players to predict the movements and interactions of game pieces, as there are fewer options for movement and interaction.
In a hex-based game board with six neighbors, a game piece is surrounded by six other game pieces: three in a hexagonal pattern above, below, and to the sides. This can make it more difficult for players to predict the movements and interactions of game pieces, as there are more options for movement and interaction.
The use of hexagonal spaces can also allow for more varied and interesting movement patterns, as game pieces can move diagonally across the game board in addition to moving up, down, left, and right. This can create more complex and varied gameplay and can also help to prevent players from becoming “stuck” in certain areas of the game board.
Contiguity vs Continuity
In a board game with contiguous spaces, the game board is divided into distinct, separate spaces that are next to each other, forming a continuous area. Movement between these spaces is typically limited to certain predefined paths or rules. An example of a board game with contiguous spaces is chess, where the board is divided into 64 squares and pieces can only move to certain squares based on their type and rules of movement.
In a board game with continuous spaces, the game board is not divided into distinct spaces, and movement is typically not limited to predefined paths. Instead, movement is typically continuous and unrestricted within the boundaries of the playing field. An example of a board game with continuous spaces is billiards, where the ball can move continuously around the table and obstacles.
Movement
Common movement mechanics that are used in board games include:
Movement along a path: Players move their game pieces along a predefined path on the game board, such as a track or a set of spaces connected by lines. This can be used to guide the movement of game pieces and to create restrictions on movement.
Movement based on dice rolls: Players move their game pieces a certain number of spaces based on the result of rolling dice. This can create an element of randomness in movement and can also allow players to strategize around the probabilities of different dice rolls.
Movement based on cards: Players draw and play cards that allow them to move their game pieces in specific ways, such as moving a certain number of spaces, moving to a specific space on the board, or moving other game pieces.
Movement based on game piece abilities: Game pieces can have unique abilities that allow them to move in special ways, such as jumping over other game pieces, moving diagonally, or moving multiple spaces in a single turn.
Movement based on player choices: Players can choose how to move their game pieces based on their own strategic considerations, such as trying to block the movement of other game pieces or trying to reach specific spaces on the board.
Jumping is a type of movement in games where a game piece is able to move over other game pieces or obstacles as if “jumping” over them. This can allow game pieces to bypass obstacles or bypass other game pieces in order to reach their destination.
Teleportation is a type of movement in games where a game piece is able to instantly move from one location on the game board to another without physically moving through the spaces in between. This can allow game pieces to bypass obstacles or reach distant locations quickly, but can also remove an element of strategy based on movement and positioning.
Diagonals
Diagonal movement is a type of movement in a board game where a game piece is able to move across the game board diagonally, rather than just up, down, left, or right. This can allow game pieces to move to spaces that are not directly adjacent to their current location and can create more complex and varied movement patterns.
Diagonal movement can be used in board games with either grid-based or hexagonal spaces, and can be implemented in various ways depending on the specific rules and mechanics of the game. For example, diagonal movement might be allowed only for certain types of game pieces, or it might be restricted to certain spaces on the game board.
The use of diagonal movement can add an element of strategy and complexity to a board game, as players must consider the additional movement options that it provides and how it can be used to their advantage. However, it can also make the game more complex and harder to understand for some players, especially if it is combined with other types of movement mechanics.
A problem with hexes is that their shape doesn’t relate to anything we typically encounter in real life, unless you’re making a game about bee colonies or chicken wire or patio pavers or bolts or pencils or soccer balls. Rectilinear grids may not be the best choice for depicting oceans and continents, but they’re great for square-shaped things like rooms, buildings, TVs, slices of toast, cheese slices, napkins, floor tiles, and even cities.
Further Reading & Exploring
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gametheory.asp
A game theory intro.
https://www.gamedesigning.org/gaming/ai-in-gaming/
AI in games.
In video games, the game state is often conveyed through on-screen graphics and user interfaces that display relevant information to the player.
https://quizlet.com/445885975/game-theory-exam-2-flash-cards/
In games with hidden information, some aspects of the game are not known to all players.
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Non-Core Mechanics: Social Interactions
Common Digital Gaming Platforms
Bibliography & Further Reading
- A Game Design Vocabulary: Exploring the Foundational Principles Behind Good Game Design by Anna Anthropy and Naomi Clark
- A Theory of Fun for Game Design by Raph Koster
- Advanced Game Design: A Systems Approach by Michael Sellers
- An Introduction to Game Studies by Frans Mayra
- Basics of Game Design by Michael Moore
- Blood, Sweat, and Pixels: The Triumphant, Turbulent Stories Behind How Video Games Are Made Blood, Sweat, and Pixels: The Triumphant, Turbulent Stories Behind How Video Games Are Made by Jason Schreier
- Board Game Design Advice: From the Best in the World vol 1 by Gabe Barrett
- Building Blocks of Tabletop Game Design: an Encyclopedia Of Mechanisms by Geoffrey Engelstein and Isaac Shalev
- Character Development and Storytelling for Games by Lee Sheldon
- Chris Crawford on Game Design by Chris Crawford
- Clockwork Game Design by Keith Burgun
- Elements of Game Design by Robert Zubek
- Fundamentals of Game Design by Ernest Adams
- Fundamentals of Puzzle and Casual Game Design by Ernest Adams
- Game Design Foundations by Brenda Romero
- Game Design Workshop by Tracy Fullerton
- Game Mechanics: Advanced Game Design by Ernest Adams and Joris Dormans
- Game Writing: Narrative Skills for Videogames edited by Chris Bateman
- Games, Design and Play: A detailed approach to iterative game design by Colleen Macklin and John Sharp
- Introduction to Game Systems Design by Dax Gazaway
- Kobold Guide to Board Game Design by Mike Selinker, David Howell, et al
- Kobold’s Guide to Worldbuilding edited by Janna Silverstein
- Level Up! The Guide to Great Video Game Design, 2nd Edition by Scott Rogers
- Narrating Space / Spatializing Narrative: Where Narrative Theory and Geography Meet by Marie-Laure Ryan, Kenneth Foote, et al.
- Narrative Theory: A Critical Introduction by Kent Puckett
- Narrative Theory: Core Concepts and Critical Debates by David Herman, James Phelan, et al.
- Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative, Fourth Edition by Mieke Bal
- Practical Game Design by Adam Kramarzewski and Ennio De Nucci
- Procedural Storytelling in Game Design by Tanya X. Short and Tarn Adams
- Professional Techniques for Video Game Writing by Wendy Despain
- Rules of Play by Salen and Zimmerman
- Storyworlds Across Media: Toward a Media-Conscious Narratology (Frontiers of Narrative) by Marie-Laure Ryan, Jan-Noël Thon, et al
- Tabletop Game Design for Video Game Designers by Ethan Ham
- The Art of Game Design, 3rd Edition by Jesse Schell
- The Board Game Designer’s Guide: The Easy 4 Step Process to Create Amazing Games That People Can’t Stop Playing by Joe Slack
- The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative by H. Porter Abbott
- The Grasshopper, by Bernard Suits
- The Routledge Companion to Video Game Studies by Bernard Perron and Mark J.P. Wolf
- The Routledge Encyclopedia of Narrative Theory by David Herman
- The Ultimate Guide to Video Game Writing and Design by Flint Dille & John Zuur Platten
- Unboxed: Board Game Experience and Design by Gordon Calleja
- Video Game Storytelling: What Every Developer Needs to Know about Narrative Techniques by Evan Skolnick
- Writing for Video Game Genres: From FPS to RPG edited by Wendy Despain
- Writing for Video Games by Steve Ince
- 100 Principles of Game Design by DESPAIN
